Updated on Oct. 7, 2025.
This glossary provides plain-language definitions for health and research terms used across 色中色 topics such as bone and heart health, cancer, Alzheimer鈥檚 disease and veterinary medicine.
Understanding these terms can make medical information easier to follow and support clear conversations with your care team.
Browse the categories below to explore essential concepts discussed in 色中色鈥 From Labs to Lives and In Focus: Advancing Health Worldwide content.
Anatomy & Physiology
Bone structure
Bone
Living hard tissue that supports the body, protects organs and works with muscles to enable movement.
Compact bone
Dense outer layer of bone that provides most of its strength and protection. Under a microscope it contains tightly packed structural units with small channels for blood vessels and nerves that keep the tissue nourished and responsive.
Cancellous bone
Also known as spongy bone, lighter inner bone with a porous structure that contains marrow and helps absorb impact.
Periosteum
Thin, nerve-rich outer layer of bone that nourishes and protects it.
Skeletal system
Framework of bones that supports and protects the body and enables movement with muscles.
Specific bones
Femur
The thigh bone and the body鈥檚 longest and strongest bone.
Hyoid bone
Bone in the neck that assists with swallowing and speech and does not directly attach to other bones.
Stapes
The smallest bone in the body, located in the middle ear, where it helps transmit sound.
Blood and marrow
Blood cells
Cells in the blood that include red blood cells that carry oxygen, white blood cells that fight infection and platelets that help blood clot.
Bone marrow
Soft, spongy tissue inside bones where blood cells are made. It helps produce red blood cells that carry oxygen, white blood cells that fight infection and platelets that help blood clot.
Bone marrow environment
The space inside bones where blood cells grow and develop. It includes bone marrow cells, blood vessels and signals that help control how new blood cells are made.
Engineered bone marrow
Also known as eBM, bone marrow that scientists create in the lab to act like natural bone marrow. It allows researchers to study how blood and bone diseases develop and to test new treatments without harming people or animals.
Hematopoiesis
Process in bone marrow that creates new blood cells.
Platelets
Blood cell fragments that help stop bleeding by forming clots.
Red blood cells
Cells that carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. In mammals, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and most organelles, which makes more room for hemoglobin.
Red marrow
Type of bone marrow that produces new blood cells.
Stem cells
Also known as hematopoietic stem cells, special cells found in bone marrow that can make copies of themselves and develop into many different types of blood and immune cells. They help repair and replace damaged or worn-out tissues.
White blood cells
Cells that help the body fight infections and support immune responses.
Yellow marrow
Type of bone marrow found mostly in long bones that stores fat and can convert back to red marrow after severe blood loss to help produce blood cells.
Connective and related tissues
Cartilage
Flexible tissue that cushions joints and shapes structures like the nose and ears.
Collagen
Structural protein that provides strength and framework in bone, skin, tendons and ligaments.
Connective tissue
Broad group of tissues that support, connect or separate other tissues. It includes specialized connective tissues such as bone and cartilage, dense regular connective tissue such as tendons and ligaments, and specialized types such as fat and blood.
Ligament
Tough band of connective tissue that connects bones and stabilizes joints.
Nervous and dental
Nerve
Bundle of fibers that carries signals between the brain, spinal cord and body to control movement and sensation.
Enamel
Hard outer layer of teeth that is made mostly of minerals and is the hardest substance in the body. It lacks collagen and living cells and cannot heal itself if damaged.
Bone cells
Osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells that help build new bone.
Osteoclasts
Bone-resorbing cells that break down old bone so new bone can form.
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts that help maintain and repair bone.
Development
Fontanelles
Soft spots on a baby鈥檚 skull that allow for brain growth and flexibility during birth.
Physiology basics
Metabolism
All the chemical processes that turn food into energy and building blocks for the body. Metabolism includes how the body uses, stores and breaks down nutrients to keep you alive.
Diseases & Conditions
Blood disorders
Anemia
Condition that happens when you don鈥檛 have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen through your body. It can make you feel tired, weak or short of breath.
Bone health conditions
Fractures
Broken bones that range from small cracks to complete breaks.
Osteogenesis imperfecta
Genetic condition characterized by fragile bones that break easily.
Osteopenia
Lower-than-average bone density that increases fracture risk but is less severe than osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis
Disease that makes bones thin and weak and increases the chance of fractures.
Joint and foot conditions
Joint degeneration
Gradual wearing down of joint tissues over time that may lead to pain and stiffness.
Osteoarthritis
The most common arthritis in which joint cartilage wears down and causes pain and stiffness.
Plantar fasciitis
Heel pain related to irritation of the thick band of tissue on the bottom of the foot.
Cancer and growths
Cancer
Broad group of more than 100 related diseases that result from uncontrolled cell growth. Some cancers form solid tumors that can invade nearby tissues and spread, while blood cancers do not form a solid tumor and can crowd out normal cells in the blood and bone marrow.
Leukemia
Cancer that starts in the blood and bone marrow, where new blood cells are made. It causes the body to make too many abnormal white blood cells, which crowd out healthy ones.
Lymphoma
Cancer that begins in the lymphatic system, part of the immune system that helps fight infection. It happens when certain white blood cells grow out of control and build up in lymph nodes or other parts of the body.
Metastatic
Describes cancer that has spread from where it started to other parts of the body.
Osteosarcoma
Cancer that starts in bone and most often affects children and adolescents.
Tumor
Abnormal growth of cells that may be benign or malignant.
Life stages and hormones
Menopause
Life stage when menstrual periods stop and lower estrogen levels can accelerate bone loss.
Post-menopause
Time after menopause when lower estrogen levels can contribute to faster bone loss.
Tests, Imaging & Measurements
Imaging tests
DEXA scan
Also called DXA, a low-dose X-ray test that measures bone mineral density to help assess osteoporosis risk. DXA stands for dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.
MRI scan
Imaging that uses magnets and radio waves to create detailed pictures of tissues such as joints, nerves and muscles.
Ultrasound
Imaging that uses sound waves to create pictures of soft tissues and is sometimes used to evaluate joints and tendons.
X-ray
Imaging test that uses a small amount of radiation to create pictures of structures inside the body, most often bones. X-rays can help detect fractures, infections and some diseases.
Lab and assessment
Blood work
Laboratory tests done on a blood sample to evaluate health, diagnose conditions or guide treatment.
Dietary assessment
Review of what a person eats to determine whether nutrient needs are being met.
Bone density metrics
Bone mineral density
BMD for short, the amount of mineral in bone. Higher values generally indicate stronger bones and lower fracture risk.
T-score
Comparison of an individual鈥檚 bone density to that of a healthy young adult. Used to classify normal bone, osteopenia or osteoporosis.
Z-score
Comparison of an individual鈥檚 bone density to people of the same age and sex.
Lifestyle & Behaviors
Activity and movement
Exercise
Planned physical activity such as walking, running and swimming. Regular activity supports cardiovascular, muscular and bone health.
Impact
In exercise, force on bones and joints when the body contacts the ground, such as running or jumping. Certain impact activities can help maintain bone strength.
Loading
In exercise, stress or weight placed on bones and muscles during movement, such as climbing stairs or carrying weights, that signals bones to adapt over time.
Mobility
Ability to move the body comfortably and perform daily activities.
Physical activity
Any movement that uses energy, from daily tasks to sports. Some activities are weight bearing and support bone health.
Pilates
Exercise method that focuses on core strength, control and flexibility to improve posture and balance. It can support back health and body awareness.
Resistance training
Exercise in which muscles work against a force, such as weights, resistance bands or body weight, to build strength and help maintain bone density.
Yoga
Mind-body practice that builds flexibility, balance and control and may help reduce fall risk.
Supportive footwear
Footwear designed to protect the feet and promote alignment that can reduce joint stress and support safer activity.
Substances and exposures
Alcohol
Depressant found in beverages such as beer, wine and liquor. In medical contexts, alcohol use is linked with liver and heart disease and can weaken bone over time.
Smoking
Inhaling smoke from burning substances, most often tobacco. Smoking harms the lungs, heart and blood vessels and is associated with weaker bones.
Nutrition
Nutrients overview
Nutrients
Substances in food, such as protein, vitamins and minerals, that the body needs to grow and stay healthy.
Mineral
Natural substance, such as calcium or phosphorus, that helps build bone and support body functions.
Protein
Macronutrient found in foods like beans, dairy, nuts and meats and used to build and repair tissues including bone and muscle.
Vitamins
Vitamin D
Vitamin that helps the body absorb calcium to build and maintain strong bones. Sources include sunlight, certain foods and supplements.
Vitamin K2
Form of vitamin K involved in activating proteins that regulate how calcium is used in the body. Research is ongoing on its roles in bone and cardiovascular health.
Minerals
Calcium
Mineral essential for bones and teeth and for normal muscle and nerve function.
Magnesium
Mineral that supports bone formation and muscle and nerve function.
Phosphorus
Mineral that works with calcium to build and maintain bones and teeth.
Zinc
Mineral that supports growth, immune function and wound healing. It helps enzymes work and plays a role in bone repair.
Intake and sources
Absorption
How the body takes in nutrients from food or supplements so they can be used for growth and repair.
Supplements
Vitamins or minerals taken in addition to food when dietary intake may be insufficient.
Treatments & Therapies
Medications
Anti-inflammatory medications
Drugs that reduce swelling and pain in tissues and are often used to manage joint or bone discomfort.
Steroids
Medications that reduce inflammation when used as corticosteroids such as prednisone. Long-term use of corticosteroids can weaken bones. Anabolic-androgenic steroids are a different class and can increase bone mass.
Therapeutic approaches
Bone regeneration
Natural repair and regrowth of bone that occurs during lifelong remodeling and after injury or disease. Large defects may require approaches such as bone grafts or tissue engineering.
Chemotherapy
Treatment that uses powerful drugs to stop or slow the growth of cancer cells. Chemotherapy medicines travel through the bloodstream, so they can reach cancer cells almost anywhere in the body. They may be used alone or with other treatments such as surgery, radiation or targeted therapy.
Physical therapy
Care that uses exercise and manual techniques to reduce pain, improve movement and help people function better.
Precision oncology
Approach to cancer treatment that uses genetic and molecular information about a person鈥檚 cancer to help select therapies.
Procedures and related conditions
Limb amputation
Removal of part or all of a limb, most often due to surgery or trauma. The term can also refer to loss of a limb from constrictive bands in rare cases.
Bone spur
Also known as an osteophyte, bony growth at the edge of a bone, often near joints, that may press on nearby tissue and cause pain.
Research Terms
Research methods
Cell cultures
Cells that are grown outside the body in a controlled lab setting, usually in a dish or flask. Scientists use cell cultures to study how cells work, test new treatments and learn how diseases develop.
Ex vivo
Experiments performed on tissues or cells taken from a living organism with minimal changes to their native structure. The term differs from in vitro, which usually refers to studies of microorganisms, isolated cells or molecules in simplified settings like dishes or tubes.
Mouse model
Use of mice to study diseases and test potential treatments.
Research concepts
Bench-to-bedside translation
The process of turning scientific discoveries made in the lab (鈥渁t the bench鈥) into new treatments or therapies that help patients (鈥渁t the bedside鈥). It connects research with real-world medical care.
Microenvironment
Local surroundings of a group of cells, including nearby cells, signals and supporting materials, that can influence cell behavior and disease processes.
Movement & Function
Functional measures
Quality of life
Overall well-being, including comfort, ability to do daily activities and satisfaction with life. In clinical research the related term health-related quality of life focuses on the parts tied to health and medical care.
Range of motion
How far a joint can move in different directions.